In this #translation post, we will look at another translation theory that might prove useful in the language teaching and learning process. Catford's translation shifts highlight the differences between languages.
Recognizing them will help learners and teachers alike be more conscious of how languages function differently in
terms of grammar, syntax, and structure
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Translation shifts - definition
What does 'shift' mean? The word itself is defined as:
: to
exchange for or replace by another: change (Merriam-Webster)
In translation, then, shifts refer to the changes that occur when a translator replaces, for example, passive voice in the source language with active voice in the target language.
Why would they do that, though?
Simply because the culture of the target language prefers active verbs. For instance, in Japanese, when you feel like you were a victim in a certain situation, you are more likely to use passive voice to stress that feeling. However, English speakers may or may not use passive voice to emphasize that feeling. Consider this example:
私はともだちにくるまをつかわれました。
I had my car used by a friend.
The victim is affected by an event. Marked with the particle は or が.
The villian preforms an action which causes the suffering. Marked with に.
The evil act is described with the passive form of a verb.
Does the English translation sound like it emphasizes the feeling of being a victim? It could be, depending on the context. But it could also sound like a very unnatural thing to say when you're upset.
Types of shifts
There are two types of shifts:
- LEVEL SHIFTS
- CATEGORY SHIFTS
Level shifts
In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford explains that a level (or rank) shift refers to a situation where an element in the source language exists at one linguistic level, but its equivalent in the target language exists at a different level (Catford, 1978: 73).
Simply
put, the target language doesn’t have a corresponding word but a grammatical
construction. We replace grammatical constructions with words or vice versa. For instance, in English you say:
I want to eat an apple.
To express your desire, you use the verb "to want." In Japanese, though, such desires are expressed through a verb ending ～たい.
リンゴが食べたい。
In Polish, to express that an action is happening at the moment of speaking, you will use the adverb teraz (now) without changing the aspect/tense of a verb. In English, you need to change the aspect/tense of a verb to the Present Continuous tense.
I’m working.
Teraz pracuję.
In
Polish, you must add the word teraz (now) to show that the
action is happening now. The verb alone could indicate the Present Simple tense as
well. Of course, if the context is clear, you can omit teraz. We
changed the Present Continuous tense to teraz (Grammar ⇒ Lexis).
Category shifts
Structure (syntax) Shifts
It
refers to changes in the arrangement of the sentence's elements (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs). English is known for its SVO (subject, verb, object) syntax. However, Polish is a very flexible language. Sentences can start with adjectives, verbs, nouns, or even adverbs. In Japanese, though, sentences always end with verbs.
I have a dog. (Subject = I; Verb = have; Object = a dog)
犬を飼っている。(Subject = omitted; Verb = 飼っている; Object = 犬)
Mam psa. (Subject = omitted; Verb = mam; Object = psa)
The Polish and English sentences don't differ in the arrangement of its elements, apart from the fact that the subject is omitted in the Polish sentence (the subject is implied; I can, but I don't have to include it). It is possible to say "Psa mam" in Polish (in an appropriate context), while in English not so much (A dog I have; unless you are master Yoda).
Class (parts of speech) Shifts
Adjectives
change to verbs, or nouns to verbs, etc.
I’m (verb)
thirsty (adjective). || Chcę (verb) mi się pić (verb).
I
want (verb) a dog. || 犬がほしい (adjective/noun)。
Unit (sentences, clauses, phrases, etc.) Shifts
Some
languages are wordy and some are rather concise and flexible when
it comes to word-formation. Polish tend to be wordy and prefers verbal structures, while in English it is easy to create nominal structures using fewer words. Japanese, on the other hand, thanks to its kanji, can express a variety of meanings through a single word.
生きがい (single word) ＝ a reason for being (phrase)
物の哀れ (phrase) ＝ a whole description because we can’t even put the meaning into one sentence
Dining room (phrase) ＝ jadalnia (one word)
Intra-system Shifts
It
refers to grammatical constructions that are present in both languages but are
used differently. In Japanese, plural nouns are technically non-existent. The
context will tell you if we talk about one thing or many things. However, we
can create plural nouns when we talk about animate objects. The concept of
plural nouns does exist, but is used differently in Japanese and English.
Bonnieたち ＝ Bonnie and friends/and others
In
Japanese, we use a suffix indicating that there is more than one person, but
in English, we used an extra plural word to show it.
Another good example is an English grammar referred to as 'causative have' (which encompasses verbs like make, get, do as well). It's a structure that is used in English regularly. However, Polish speakers rarely use it while speaking English. It's not that there is no equivalent of it in Polish. There is, but in Polish, connotations with that grammar are a tad different.
Sources
- https://stba-pertiwi.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Translation-shift-of-STBAs-Students-by-Susiyati.pdf
- my notes from college
- John Catford, A Linguistic Theory of Translation
